I want to write about fear. But my fear makes no sound. How can I make a mockery of the very sacred thing that is fear by giving it a banal form that is comprehensible to everyone?
Tout sera fixé bientot...Mais pourquoi je me sens vide? ...si vide que j'ai envie bien de renverser tout ce que j'ai fait. C'est à cause de toi ma chèrie...Toi le Sans-nom....
他将这些思想倾向带入了他关于“广义经济”的著作中,主要出现在La Part Maudite一书中。他认为经典经济学对经济运动本质的理解有其局限性。相应的,巴塔耶构想了一个解释能量运作的元范畴,经典经济学仅仅属于它的一个亚范畴。在他的模式中,能量流动的源头可以回溯到从太阳吸收的能量。植物吸收照在它们身上的光及其能量,并从中提取能量为本身的生存所用。但更重要的,它们创造了一部分过度的能量。而这部分过度的能量要不就是被投入生长和繁殖,要不就是被消耗,用于美化叶子,其他无用的部分,或者直接被撒入地下。
他将这个基本能量模式应用到所有经济现象中,正如他在La Part Maudite中所写:
On the whole, a society always produces more than is
necessary for its survival; it has a surplus at its disposal.It is precisely the use it makes of this
surplus that determines it:The Surplus
is the cause of the agitation, of the structural changes and of the entire
history of society.But this surplus has
more than one outlet, the most common of which is growth.And growth itself has many forms, each one of
which eventually comes up against some limit.Thwarted demographic growth becomes military; it is forced to engage in
conquest.Once the military limits is
reached, the surplus has the sumptuary forms of religion as an outlet, along
with games and spectacles that derive therefrom, or personal luxury.[i]
巴塔耶正是这个广义经济的框架中开始着手解释GIFT这一概念。这一概念首先是和祭奠形式相关的。然而,要理解巴塔耶的GIFT的概念,我们首先必须看看他关于祭奠的概念以及这个概念和GIFT的关系。在一个理性的经济体系中,物质和生产的存在不是为了满足人口普遍生活需求,就是为了发展过程。这就是说,所有的生产活动都以未来为目标,所有的生产活动都是一个增长和扩展的过程。在这个过程中,所有的物体都被视为达到未来经济目的的手段,而非目的本身。主体一旦和未来扯上关系就会脱离自身的领域,使自己从属于物体的真实秩序。"The subject leaves
its own domain and subordinates itself to the objects of the real order
as soon as it becomes concerned for the future."[ii]然后,在祭奠的形式中,物质财富被仪式性地摧毁,物品脱离了生产过程,脱离了以未来为目的的倾向。它们不再被视为对整个文化体系的能产生使用价值的物体。它们的价值在于它们本身,独立于功用价值。
在祭奠的过程中,献祭的人和祭品一样象征性地脱离了实用需求,最后可能成为一个自主的主体。献祭的人并没有完全被系统或者这个过程的需求所操控,而是具有一定的自主性。巴塔耶通过Aztec人祭奠的实例来审视这些概念。尽管在那个特定文明中发生的这么大规模的人类祭奠对现代文明来说是一种毛骨耸然的行为,它却确实代表着祭奠的本质。用巴塔耶的话来说,"The victim is surplus taken from the mass of useful wealth.And he can only be withdrawn from it in order
to be consumed profitlessly, and therefore utterly destroyed.Once chosen, he is the accursed share, destined for violent consumption.But the curse tears him away from the order of things; it gives him a
recognizable figure, which now radiates intimacy, anguish, the profundity of
living beings."
那些在战争中被俘的人替代了特定文化中的个体作为祭品被献祭。献祭的牺牲者和他们所替代的人之间产生了一种极具象征意义的关系。他们和牺牲者之间的关系被融入了一种极度的“亲密”感。牺牲者被当作儿女甚至是王侯来对待。牺牲者通过死亡脱离了物体的领土。他不再可能被当作物体用于任何用途,而是成为了自身,成为了毫无用处的自主主体;而实施祭奠的人也同时成为了自主的主体。双方都进入了神圣的领域,成为了自由的主体,不再从属于任何实用生产的需求。"The world of the subject is the night:that changeable, infinitely suspect night
which, in the sleep of reason, produces
monsters.I submit that madness itself
gives a rarefied idea of the free 'subject,' unsubordinated to the 'real' order
and occupied only with the present."
巴塔耶的GIFT的概念和祭奠的概念有着紧密联系。他是在Marcel Mauss在1950年发表的Essai sur le Don的基础上发展关于GIFT的本质的思想的。Marcel Mauss (1872 - 1950)直接秉承了Emile Durkheim的传统,也是后者社会学研究计划的积极参与者。尽管这部著作从本质上来讲属于客观人类学的范畴,但正如Mauss在结语里所言,这部作品的冲击力实际上在于它提供了一种另类的视野,一种对资本主义实用价值体系的批判。正如Mary Douglas在这本书的英译本前言中所说的,"The Essay on the Gift was part of an
organized onslaught on contemporary political theory, a plank in the platform
against utilitarianism."
这篇论文的主要目的是批判人类学家将GIFT-GIVING视为理性经济交换形式的解读。他斥责人类学家以先入为主的态度将强调经济交换的必要性和普遍性的模式强加到其他文化身上。对于他的同时代知识分子对GIFT交换所作的分析,Mauss提出了不同看法,他说"current economic and
judicial history is largely mistaken in this matter.Imbued with modern ideas, it forms a priori ideas of development and
follows a so-called necessary logic."然而,他发现不同的经济体系,不同的文化对GIFT-GIVING的行为有着异于实用经济的不同目的。"Thus one section of humanity, comparatively
rich, hardworking, and creating considerable surpluses, has known how to, and
still does know how to, exchange things of great value, under different forms
and for reasons different from those with which we are familiar."
Mauss断言,在他所分析的那些被认为是“古代”社会中,在赠与GIFT的能力中存在着一种和GIFT相关联的精神力量。对于每一个GIFT都存在着一个相应的COUNTER-GIFT。后者是必须的,它能够驱除或者回馈GIFT的内在力量。这是唯一可以消除赠与者通过GIFT对受赠者实施的制约力的途径。对Mauss来说,GIFT-GIVING是这些社会中维持社会结构的重要粘合剂。就如Mary Douglas所说,"the theory of the
gift is a theory of social solidarity."。通过GIFT-GIVING,社会关系得以创造,个体得以互相连接,并互相分享伴随着交换GIFT产生的社会力量。这活动使个体容入"total services"的结构。Mauss以典型的Durkheim式的方式强调了与个人理性盘算相对的协作式,共识式经济社会结构。
然而, Mauss发现,在其他社会里,这种GIFT交换的概念已经升级成一种竞争性的活动。最典型的这类GIFT的例子是在西北美州一些部落里盛行的POTLATCH。在这种活动中,GIFT完全脱离了实用经济交换的领域,演变成为一种破坏性行为。在POTLATCH中,人们毫无节制地互赠GIFT,主要为的是展示财富和奢华。然而,一个POTLATCH需要另一个POTLATCH作为回应。POTLATCH的受赠者必须相应地还以一个更加奢华的POTLATCH。而这些活动是在敌对和竞争的原则上进行的。部落中的人通过这种“财产的战争”获取相应的政治地位和社会地位。"Everything is based upon the principles of antagonism and
rivalry.The political status of
individuals in the brotherhoods and clans, ranks of all kinds, are gained in a
'war of property'." POTLATCH的赠与者序需要表现出一种对经济财务的蔑视,将它们摧毁到一去不复返的程度。珍贵的铜器被打碎扔入河中。在极端的例子中,整个村落都因为POTLATCH的肆虐而面目全非。而就是在毁坏财富的过程中,个体赢得了社会地位和同类的认可。
不容置疑的是,Mauss的这篇文章的发表激发了很多人的兴趣。正如巴塔耶所说,"since the publication
of Marcel Mauss's The Gift, the
institution of potlatch has been the object of sometime dubious interest and
curiosity."巴塔耶在前者对POTLATCH的描述中发现了一种对理性资本主义经济必要性和角色的根本挑战。POTLATCH激发了他“摧毁过剩财富需求”的构想。他觉得社会有需要去摧毁过剩的能量和财富,而不是象建立在“稀缺”基础上的传统经济学分析所说-去积累和储存财富。经典经济学一直认为最早的经济交换是物物交换形式,这是种获得财富的模式,巴塔耶对此产生了质疑,"classical economy
imagined the first exchanges in the form of barter.Why would it have thought that in the beginning a mode of acquisition
such as exchange had not answered the need to acquire, but rather the contrary
need to lose or squander?The classical
conception is now questionable in a sense."正如一个评论巴塔耶的人所说,在经典概念体系中,那些极端的狂暴的行为在解释人类活动的话语中没有一席之地。人们总是以为推动的这些活动的是“得到”的欲望,但可能情况恰恰相反,推动这些活动的从根本上来说可能恰恰是人类希望“失去”的欲望。"The entire classical
conceptual structure excludes an explanation for all human activities (such as
extreme or violent pleasure) that are motivated not by a desire to gain, but
rather by a desire to lose."
We need to give away, lose or destroy.But the gift would be senseless (and so we
would never decide to give) if it did not take on the meaning of an
acquisition.Hence giving must become acquiring
of power.Gift-giving has the virtue
of surpassing of the subject who gives, but in exchange for the object given,
the subject appropriates the surpassing:He regards his virtue, that which he had the capacity for, as an asset,
as a power that he now posses.He enriches himself with a contempt for
riches, and what he proves to be miserly of is in fact his generosity.
这和他关于祭奠的概念是息息相关的,因为GIFT对他来说是一种可以逃离经济必须性的途径。在这种行为中的交换物品不是一件物体,不是在失去神性的资本主义世界里那没有生命力的物体。GIFT是荣耀的标志,通过给予GIFT个体可以展示自身的财富和权力。"An article of exchange, in these practices, was
not a thing; it was not reduced to
the inertia, the lifelessness of the profane world.The gift
that one made of it was a sign of glory, and the object itself had the radiance
of glory.By giving one exhibited one's
wealth and one's good fortune (one's power)."于是,通过证明自己消耗过度财富的能力,社会个体得以逃离物化的奴役。随着物体逃离实用领域并重回祭奠那无用性的神圣领域,丢失主体性也回归。这种主体性意味着一种可以表达个体意愿的基本自由。主体通过证明自己可以在实用需求之外耗费财富的能力来实现这种自由。
巴塔耶将这种GIFT的概念应用到人类生活的许多层面。在La Part Maudite的第二部分中,他试图展示人类的情色史。他坚信,GIFT原则这种推动人类整体活动的原则也自然存在于情色活动背后,"it should come as no
surprise to us that the principle of the gift, which propels the movement of
general activity, is at the basis of sexual activity." 这活动是神圣的亲密性的表现。人们通过理性需求达到这种亲密性,同时也表达了对理性需求的明目张胆的蔑视。
It would be easy in fact to find ourselves personally
looking for a form of humanity that does not betray it, shunning those vacant
lots, those suburbs and factories, whose appearance expresses the nature of
industrial societies, and making our way toward some dead city, bristling with
gothic spires.We cannot deny that
present-day humanity has lost the secret, kept until the current age, of giving
itself a face in which it might recognize the splendor that is proper to
it.Doubtless the 'works' of the Middle
Ages in a sense were only things:They
could rightly appear worthless to anyone who envisioned, beyond, in its
inaccessible purity, the wealth that he attributed to God.And yet the medieval representation of
society has the power today of evoking that 'lost intimacy.'
在巴塔耶看来,人们无法在资本主义社会里通过消耗“过度”来找寻主体意义,这表现在现代社会中很多方面。消耗在任何一个社会都是必须的,然而在现代社会,这种必须的消耗是通过有组织有控制的形式进行的。为了避免失控,它所提供的是小规模的,有预定方向的必要能量释放。个体被边缘化,成为旁观者,象征性地参与到挥霍过度能量的过程中,例如体育比较,脱口秀节目。正如Laura Marz所强调的,景观活动从我们身上盗取了个体体验又将它售卖给我们,但仅仅是以一种象征性的形式售卖给我们。这就是为什么我们永远不会满足。正是通过这样的诱惑体制,现代社会消费机器才得以不断运转,"the spectacle steals
every experience and sells it back to us, but only symbolically, so that we are
never satisfied:via this mechanism we
support the machine of endless consumption over and over." 主体性消失在封闭的消费和生产体系中。在这里,人们看不见可以在GIFT活动中所找到的个人权力和主体性的表达。现代社会的耗费方式不是个人的,不是主体的,也不是亲密性的,而是在大规模基础上通过大型资本主义企业售卖给消费者。巴塔耶在Aztec 祭奠中所看到的人性化个体化的东西在这个一切都被预设的非个体化现代社会中完全消失。个体不再可能逃回神圣主体的世界。
正是在这个框架中我们可以看见尼采对巴塔耶的巨大影响。巴塔耶的Sur Nietzsche确实是尼采思想在法国被接受的主要档案之一。在它之前,尼采的法国主要是被放在纳粹的框架中被解读的;而在它之后,德里达,福柯等人又兴起了一股重新解读尼采的潮流。巴塔耶的作品连接了这两个断层。福柯亲口说他读尼采是由于巴塔耶,而巴塔耶读尼采是由于Blanchot,"I read him
[Nietzsche] because of Bataille, and Bataille because of Blanchot." 在巴塔耶对尼采的解读中,他们发现的是一种继续描述并重新解释被结构主义宣布死亡的主体的方式。甚至可以这样说,后结构主义的那个“后”字是被巴塔耶加上去的。阅读尼采对福柯个人来说是一个分水岭。因为据他所言,既然有理性的历史就一定有主体的历史;但理性的历史绝不意味着在理性历史的初始之时存在着一个理性的主体,"reading Nietzsche was
the point of rupture for me.There is a history of the subject just as there is a
history of reason; but we can never demand that the history of reason unfold at
a first and founding act of the rationalist subject."
说出这番言论的福柯明显追随着巴塔耶对尼采的解读;他将尼采看成是与非人性理性经济制度相对立的主体预言者。对巴塔耶来说,他的时代可以允许的只有两种姿态,一个是将个人沦为物体的共产主义,因为它至少不虚伪,不伪装主体的面孔;一个则是尼采的态度。尼采将主体从过去强加在他身上的局限性和现在的物化过程中解放出来。“Communism, reducing each man to the object (thus rejecting the deceptive
appearances that the subject had assumed), and the attitude of Nietzsche --
similar to the one that emerges from this work -- free the subject at the same time, of the limits imposed on it by the past
and of the objectivity of the present."尼采竭力要逃离的是物化理性需求的桎悎。巴塔耶又说道,"he [Nietzsche]
remained completely on the side where calculation is unknown:Nietzsche's gift is the gift that nothing
limits; it is the sovereign gift, that of subjectivity."
德国人对尼采的解读主要侧重于权力意志,而且,他们将权力意志和社会结构的推进紧密联系了起来。在他们眼中,以未来为目标的 Volk和过去共存于一个整体的时间进程中。巴塔耶所强调的则是尼采的永恒回归的概念。辙种概念强调的是此时此刻的重要性,从而得以逃离时间的线性进程。哈贝马斯曾经说过,巴塔耶和尼采都相信一点:在自我扩张和创造意义的权力意志和植根于宇宙的同一事物永恒回归宿命论之间存在着一个交汇点。"For Bataille, as for
Nietzsche, there is a convergence between the self-aggrandizing and
meaning-creating will to power and a cosmically moored fatalism of the eternal
return of the same."巴塔耶还说,"if we stop looking at states of ardor
simply as preliminary to other subsequent conditions grasped as beneficial, the
state I propose seems a pure play of lightening, merely an empty
consummation.Lacking any relation to material benefits such as
power or growth of the state (or of God or a Church or a party), this
consummation can't even be comprehended.It appears that positive value of loss can only be given as gain."。这里所表达的观点和巴塔耶对于GIFT的概念紧密相关。通过着重活动,个体脱离了线性发展的物化过程进入当下的一刻。这是属于主体性的自由。
巴塔耶强调的逃离线性的时间进程并着眼于当下的可能性。"Immanence exists
simultaneously and in an indissoluble moment as both an immediate summit (which
from all standpoints, is the same as the individual's destruction) and a
spiritual summit."这是永恒回归的根本意义所在,是逃离理性必须性的此刻经验。"At least the idea of eternal return is added . .
. In a spontaneous movement (so it seems), it adds the expansion of eternal
time to passive terrors."他在谈论超现实主义时也说,以停留在此刻来对抗时间流动中的溶解时至关重要的。
德里达正是通过对GIFT这样的理解开始批判Mauss对GIFT和赠与所进行的人类学分析的。他的批判是从两个层面展开的。第一个层面似乎是对于现代人类学本身比较笼统的批判。他质疑,"How is one to
legitimate the translations thanks to which Mauss circulates and travels,
identifying from one culture to another what he understands by gift, what he
calls gift."。德里达玩弄语言的歧义,细致地分析一些特殊的词语如何被使用。他注意到Mauss是如何批判其他学者不假思索地就将有歧义的GIFT一词套用到经济交换语言中。然而,Mauss后来似乎又意识到这个词本身的歧义性,GIFT本身就是交换的一部分。于是他开始好不隐晦地要求在理解这一行为时将两种词意相结合。对德里达来说,这证明了这样的一个近乎疯狂的认识,即这个词本身就是不可能的。
确实,他就顺着这条路线走向了对Mauss的第二层面的批判,即对GIFT概念本身的批判。如果说一件GIFT的赠与不伴随着礼尚往来的期望,那么Mauss的分析抹杀了这一可能性,因为他说每一个赠与GIFT的行为都伴随回赠。他这么评论Mauss,"He never asks the
question as to whether gifts can remain gifts once they are exchanged."德里达从循环的角度来看待这样的交换,其中包含了GIFT和COUNTER-GIFT。然而,一个GIFT要成为名副其实的GIFT则必须脱离这个循环。按照Mauss的理解这样的脱离其实是不可能的。对他来说,GIFT深深地根植于这个交换的循环中。"It deals with
economy, exchange, contract (do ut des),
it speaks of raising the stakes, sacrifice, gift and counter-gift -- in short, everything that in the thing itself
impels the gift and the annulment of
the gift."在德里达的眼中,Mauss所讨论的那种GIFT完全不能算是名副其实的GIFT。
然而,在Mauss的描述中,有两点激起了德里达的极大兴趣。第一点是他的时间的强调。Mauss认为GIFT和COUNTER-GIFT之间一定存在着一段时间差。迅速地回赠或者是马上回赠都是非常不礼貌的。所有,GIFT所赠与的实际上是时间。GIFT实际上什么也没有给予,唯一给予的是时间。"The gift is not a
gift, the gift only gives to the extent it gives
time."它赋予人类关系循环的是一段历史,一种重要的时间性。这一点对稍后与巴塔耶的对比很重要。
第二点是,Mauss注意到GIFT必须是过度的。它试图在奢侈耗费中超越交换循环。然而这种努力似乎是无望的。如同在POTLAT中,一次过度耗费企图超越循环的行为仅仅象是加大了赌注,因为它相应要求对方以更多的能量或者财富来回赠。从这一点来说,GIFT的概念成为了一个疯狂的概念,"madness of keeping or
of hypermnesic capitalization and
madness of the forgetful expenditure." 假若一次GIFT企图脱离交换循环,它实际上反而越来越接近这个循环,使循环不断更新。在试图脱离循环的过程中它接近新的循环。GIFT在毁灭自身作为纯粹意义的GIFT的这个过程中推动历史前进,不断激活着新的循环。"For finally, the overrunning of the circle by
the gift, if there is any, does not lead to a simple, ineffable exteriority
that would be transcendent and without relation.It is this exteriority that sets the circle
going; it is this exteriority that puts the economy in motion.It is this exteriority that engages in the
circle and makes it turn."
德里达眼中的GIFT概念有个重要的时间性,这种对时间性的强调乍一看来似乎和巴塔耶对逃离时间线性进程的强调大相径庭。从Mauss的观察中,德里达推论在GIFT和COUNTER-GIFT之间一定存在一段恰当的时间差。这样一来,尽管GIFT的价值必须以社会所要求的COUNTER-GIFT的形式被回赠,GIFT却给予了时间:The gift is not a gift, the gift only gives
to the extent it gives time.The difference between a gift and every other operation of pure and
simple exchange is that the gift gives time.There where there is gift, there
is time.What it gives, the gift, is
time."
在La Part Maudite一书中,巴塔耶通过对不同文化进行结构分析反映了不同文化是如何实施摧毁过剩的权力的。无论是西藏,Aztecs还是早期的伊斯兰,他分析的每个文化在早期都是被GIFT这种行为所定义的,都是被那个特定社会的过剩财富被消耗的方式所定义的。"Human improductive expenditure creates new
improductive values, which reconnect humans to the universe through the loss
principle."在这个概念里,对酒神作为一个健康文化的基础的要求清晰可见。通过这种消耗,文化生产有可能成为一种自主的行为,这种行为与对可用资源进行最大化利用的理性做法截然不同。这个时刻也是使人类成之为人类的时刻,因为它象征着人类社会超越了象征着动物生活的实用价值系统。正如有人这样评论,对巴塔耶来说,"interdiction is
presented as a negation of nature (le donnJ) which founds culture,
marking the emergence of man from animal.”